packfs/bench/bench.c

/*
 * bench.c — PackFS vs. the host filesystem, across as many operations as
 * the public API exposes.
 *
 * This is a benchmark, not a test: it makes no pass/fail assertions, and
 * its numbers are specific to whatever machine and filesystem it runs
 * on — see the environment banner it prints before any numbers, and read
 * it before drawing conclusions from the results. In particular:
 *
 *   - "raw fs (no fsync)" writes go through plain POSIX open/write/close
 *     with no fsync, so they land in the page cache, exactly like the
 *     `mem` backend lands in a malloc'd buffer — this is the fair,
 *     apples-to-apples comparison for "how much does PackFS's own
 *     bookkeeping cost, independent of durability."
 *   - "raw fs (fsync)" adds an fsync per file, which is what it actually
 *     costs to make a write durable on this host — this is the fair
 *     comparison against nothing in PackFS, since no backend here
 *     fsyncs a `mem`-backed write (there is nothing on disk to sync);
 *     the closest durable analogue is the `dir` backend, benchmarked
 *     separately, and even that does not fsync per write (Section 5.4
 *     does not require it — only compaction and the journal do,
 *     Section 4.3).
 *   - The `dir` backend's numbers include the openat2/O_NOFOLLOW
 *     containment cost (Section 6.2) on every single lookup, which raw
 *     fs access has no equivalent of paying — that gap *is* the
 *     measurement, not noise to explain away.
 */

#include <dirent.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <unistd.h>

#include "packfs.h"

/* ---- tunables: this is the "extreme" in "make it extreme" ---- */
#define N_SMALL        20000   /* small files for the metadata-heavy suite */
#define SMALL_SIZE     128
#define N_DIRS         4000
#define N_CONC_THREADS 8
#define OPS_PER_THREAD 4000
#define LARGE_CHUNK    (64 * 1024)

static const size_t LARGE_SIZES[] = { 1u << 20, 16u << 20, 64u << 20 };
#define N_LARGE_SIZES (sizeof(LARGE_SIZES) / sizeof(LARGE_SIZES[0]))

/* ---- timing + results table ---- */

static double now_sec(void) {
    struct timespec ts;
    clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &ts);
    return (double)ts.tv_sec + (double)ts.tv_nsec / 1e9;
}

typedef struct Row {
    char category[48];
    char backend[24];
    double seconds;
    double ops_per_sec;
    double mb_per_sec; /* 0 if not applicable */
} Row;

static Row g_rows[256];
static int g_row_count = 0;

static void record(const char *category, const char *backend, double seconds, double count, double bytes) {
    Row *r = &g_rows[g_row_count++];
    snprintf(r->category, sizeof(r->category), "%s", category);
    snprintf(r->backend, sizeof(r->backend), "%s", backend);
    r->seconds = seconds;
    r->ops_per_sec = seconds > 0 ? count / seconds : 0;
    r->mb_per_sec = (bytes > 0 && seconds > 0) ? (bytes / (1024.0 * 1024.0)) / seconds : 0;
    printf("  %-28s %-10s %9.4fs  %14.0f ops/s", category, backend, seconds, r->ops_per_sec);
    if (r->mb_per_sec > 0) printf("  %10.1f MB/s", r->mb_per_sec);
    printf("\n");
}

static void section(const char *title) {
    printf("\n== %s ==\n", title);
}

static void fmt_name(char *buf, size_t cap, const char *prefix, int i) {
    snprintf(buf, cap, "%s%06d.dat", prefix, i);
}

static char g_payload[SMALL_SIZE];

/* ---- category 1: small-file create (write from scratch) ---- */

static void bench_create_mem(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT, &err);
        vfs_write(f, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
        vfs_close(f);
    }
    record("create N small files", "mem", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

static void bench_create_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT, &err);
        vfs_write(f, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
        vfs_close(f);
    }
    record("create N small files", "dir", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

static void bench_create_rawfs(const char *root, int fsync_each) {
    char path[256];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        char name[64];
        fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", i);
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", root, name);
        int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_TRUNC, 0644);
        write(fd, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
        if (fsync_each) fsync(fd);
        close(fd);
    }
    record("create N small files", fsync_each ? "raw+fsync" : "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

/* ---- category 2: small-file read ---- */

static void bench_read_mem(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64], buf[SMALL_SIZE];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_RDONLY, &err);
        vfs_read(f, buf, sizeof(buf));
        vfs_close(f);
    }
    record("read N small files", "mem", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

static void bench_read_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64], buf[SMALL_SIZE];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_RDONLY, &err);
        vfs_read(f, buf, sizeof(buf));
        vfs_close(f);
    }
    record("read N small files", "dir", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

static void bench_read_rawfs(const char *root) {
    char path[256], buf[SMALL_SIZE];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        char name[64];
        fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", i);
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", root, name);
        int fd = open(path, O_RDONLY);
        read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf));
        close(fd);
    }
    record("read N small files", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

/* ---- category 3: stat ---- */

static void bench_stat_mem(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64]; VfsStat st;
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) { fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i); vfs_stat(v, path, &st); }
    record("stat N files", "mem", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

static void bench_stat_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64]; VfsStat st;
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) { fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i); vfs_stat(v, path, &st); }
    record("stat N files", "dir", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

static void bench_stat_rawfs(const char *root) {
    char path[256]; struct stat st;
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        char name[64]; fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", i);
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", root, name);
        stat(path, &st);
    }
    record("stat N files", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

/* ---- category 4: readdir ---- */

static void bench_readdir_mem(Vfs *v) {
    double t0 = now_sec();
    VfsDir dir;
    vfs_readdir(v, "/", &dir);
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("readdir (N entries)", "mem", dt, dir.count, 0);
    vfs_dir_free(&dir);
}

static void bench_readdir_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    double t0 = now_sec();
    VfsDir dir;
    vfs_readdir(v, "/", &dir);
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("readdir (N entries)", "dir", dt, dir.count, 0);
    vfs_dir_free(&dir);
}

static void bench_readdir_rawfs(const char *root) {
    double t0 = now_sec();
    DIR *d = opendir(root);
    long count = 0;
    struct dirent *de;
    while ((de = readdir(d)) != NULL) if (de->d_name[0] != '.') count++;
    closedir(d);
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("readdir (N entries)", "raw fs", dt, (double)count, 0);
}

/* ---- category 5: unlink ---- */

static void bench_unlink_mem(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) { fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i); vfs_unlink(v, path); }
    record("unlink N files", "mem", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

static void bench_unlink_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) { fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i); vfs_unlink(v, path); }
    record("unlink N files", "dir", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

static void bench_unlink_rawfs(const char *root) {
    char path[256];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
        char name[64]; fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", i);
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", root, name);
        unlink(path);
    }
    record("unlink N files", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, 0);
}

/* ---- category 6: mkdir/rmdir ---- */

static void bench_mkdir_mem(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/d%06d", i); vfs_mkdir(v, path); }
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("mkdir N dirs", "mem", dt, N_DIRS, 0);
    t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/d%06d", i); vfs_unlink(v, path); }
    record("rmdir N dirs", "mem", now_sec() - t0, N_DIRS, 0);
}

static void bench_mkdir_dirbackend(Vfs *v) {
    char path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/d%06d", i); vfs_mkdir(v, path); }
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("mkdir N dirs", "dir", dt, N_DIRS, 0);
    t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/d%06d", i); vfs_unlink(v, path); }
    record("rmdir N dirs", "dir", now_sec() - t0, N_DIRS, 0);
}

static void bench_mkdir_rawfs(const char *root) {
    char path[256];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s/d%06d", root, i); mkdir(path, 0755); }
    double dt = now_sec() - t0;
    record("mkdir N dirs", "raw fs", dt, N_DIRS, 0);
    t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_DIRS; i++) { snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s/d%06d", root, i); rmdir(path); }
    record("rmdir N dirs", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_DIRS, 0);
}

/* ---- category 7: large sequential write/read ---- */

static void bench_large_mem(Vfs *v, size_t size) {
    char *chunk = malloc(LARGE_CHUNK);
    memset(chunk, 0x5a, LARGE_CHUNK);
    char label[32]; snprintf(label, sizeof(label), "write %zuMB", size / (1024 * 1024));

    int err = 0;
    double t0 = now_sec();
    VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, "/large.bin", VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT | VFS_O_TRUNC, &err);
    for (size_t off = 0; off < size; off += LARGE_CHUNK) vfs_write(f, chunk, LARGE_CHUNK);
    vfs_close(f);
    record(label, "mem", now_sec() - t0, 1, (double)size);

    snprintf(label, sizeof(label), "read %zuMB", size / (1024 * 1024));
    t0 = now_sec();
    f = vfs_open(v, "/large.bin", VFS_O_RDONLY, &err);
    while (vfs_read(f, chunk, LARGE_CHUNK) > 0) {}
    vfs_close(f);
    record(label, "mem", now_sec() - t0, 1, (double)size);
    vfs_unlink(v, "/large.bin");
    free(chunk);
}

static void bench_large_rawfs(const char *root, size_t size, int fsync_it) {
    char *chunk = malloc(LARGE_CHUNK);
    memset(chunk, 0x5a, LARGE_CHUNK);
    char path[256]; snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s/large.bin", root);
    char label[32]; snprintf(label, sizeof(label), "write %zuMB", size / (1024 * 1024));

    double t0 = now_sec();
    int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_TRUNC, 0644);
    for (size_t off = 0; off < size; off += LARGE_CHUNK) write(fd, chunk, LARGE_CHUNK);
    if (fsync_it) fsync(fd);
    close(fd);
    record(label, fsync_it ? "raw+fsync" : "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, 1, (double)size);

    snprintf(label, sizeof(label), "read %zuMB", size / (1024 * 1024));
    t0 = now_sec();
    fd = open(path, O_RDONLY);
    while (read(fd, chunk, LARGE_CHUNK) > 0) {}
    close(fd);
    record(label, fsync_it ? "raw+fsync" : "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, 1, (double)size);
    unlink(path);
    free(chunk);
}

/* ---- category 8: pack (mmap'd, read-only) random access vs raw fs ---- */

static void bench_pack_random(const char *pack_path, int *order, Vfs *v) {
    char buf[SMALL_SIZE], path[64];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int k = 0; k < N_SMALL; k++) {
        fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", order[k]);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_RDONLY, &err);
        if (f) { vfs_read(f, buf, sizeof(buf)); vfs_close(f); }
    }
    record("random-read N entries", "pack", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
    (void)pack_path;
}

static void bench_rawfs_random(const char *root, int *order) {
    char buf[SMALL_SIZE], path[256];
    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int k = 0; k < N_SMALL; k++) {
        char name[64]; fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", order[k]);
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", root, name);
        int fd = open(path, O_RDONLY);
        if (fd >= 0) { read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)); close(fd); }
    }
    record("random-read N entries", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
}

/* ---- category 9: concurrency ---- */

typedef struct ThreadArgs {
    Vfs *v;
    const char *rawroot;
    int thread_id;
} ThreadArgs;

static void *conc_worker_mem(void *arg) {
    ThreadArgs *ta = (ThreadArgs *)arg;
    char path[64];
    for (int i = 0; i < OPS_PER_THREAD; i++) {
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/t%d_%06d.dat", ta->thread_id, i);
        int err = 0;
        VfsFile *f = vfs_open(ta->v, path, VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT, &err);
        if (f) { vfs_write(f, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE); vfs_close(f); }
        f = vfs_open(ta->v, path, VFS_O_RDONLY, &err);
        if (f) { char buf[SMALL_SIZE]; vfs_read(f, buf, sizeof(buf)); vfs_close(f); }
        vfs_unlink(ta->v, path);
    }
    return NULL;
}

static void *conc_worker_rawfs(void *arg) {
    ThreadArgs *ta = (ThreadArgs *)arg;
    char path[256];
    for (int i = 0; i < OPS_PER_THREAD; i++) {
        snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s/t%d_%06d.dat", ta->rawroot, ta->thread_id, i);
        int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT, 0644);
        if (fd >= 0) { write(fd, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE); close(fd); }
        fd = open(path, O_RDONLY);
        if (fd >= 0) { char buf[SMALL_SIZE]; read(fd, buf, sizeof(buf)); close(fd); }
        unlink(path);
    }
    return NULL;
}

static void bench_concurrency(Vfs *v, const char *rawroot) {
    pthread_t threads[N_CONC_THREADS];
    ThreadArgs args[N_CONC_THREADS];

    double t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_CONC_THREADS; i++) {
        args[i] = (ThreadArgs){ v, NULL, i };
        pthread_create(&threads[i], NULL, conc_worker_mem, &args[i]);
    }
    for (int i = 0; i < N_CONC_THREADS; i++) pthread_join(threads[i], NULL);
    record("concurrent create+read+unlink", "mem", now_sec() - t0, (double)N_CONC_THREADS * OPS_PER_THREAD * 3, 0);

    t0 = now_sec();
    for (int i = 0; i < N_CONC_THREADS; i++) {
        args[i] = (ThreadArgs){ NULL, rawroot, i };
        pthread_create(&threads[i], NULL, conc_worker_rawfs, &args[i]);
    }
    for (int i = 0; i < N_CONC_THREADS; i++) pthread_join(threads[i], NULL);
    record("concurrent create+read+unlink", "raw fs", now_sec() - t0, (double)N_CONC_THREADS * OPS_PER_THREAD * 3, 0);
}

/* ---- main ---- */

int main(void) {
    char rawroot[] = "/tmp/packfs_bench_raw_XXXXXX";
    char dirroot[] = "/tmp/packfs_bench_dir_XXXXXX";
    if (!mkdtemp(rawroot) || !mkdtemp(dirroot)) { fprintf(stderr, "mkdtemp failed\n"); return 1; }
    char pack_path[256];
    snprintf(pack_path, sizeof(pack_path), "/tmp/packfs_bench_%d.pack", (int)getpid());
    unlink(pack_path);
    memset(g_payload, 0x42, sizeof(g_payload));

    printf("=== PackFS vs. host filesystem: benchmark ===\n\n");
    printf("environment:\n");
    printf("  raw fs test root: %s\n", rawroot);
    printf("  dir backend root: %s\n", dirroot);
    printf("  small files (N):  %d, %d bytes each\n", N_SMALL, SMALL_SIZE);
    printf("  directories (N):  %d\n", N_DIRS);
    printf("  concurrency:      %d threads x %d ops (create+read+unlink)\n", N_CONC_THREADS, OPS_PER_THREAD);
    printf("  large-file sizes: ");
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N_LARGE_SIZES; i++) printf("%zuMB ", LARGE_SIZES[i] / (1024 * 1024));
    printf("\n");
    printf("  NOTE: see the file header for what \"raw fs\" vs \"raw+fsync\" vs\n");
    printf("        \"dir\" actually measure — they are not interchangeable.\n");

    Vfs *v = vfs_new();
    Backend *mem = backend_mem_new();
    vfs_mount(v, "/", mem);

    section("1. create N small files");
    bench_create_mem(v);
    bench_create_rawfs(rawroot, 0);
    bench_create_rawfs(rawroot, 1);

    section("2. read N small files");
    bench_read_mem(v);
    bench_read_rawfs(rawroot);

    section("3. stat N files");
    bench_stat_mem(v);
    bench_stat_rawfs(rawroot);

    section("4. readdir");
    bench_readdir_mem(v);
    bench_readdir_rawfs(rawroot);

    /* ---- dir backend, same operations, same file count, its own root ---- */
    Vfs *vd = vfs_new();
    int derr = 0;
    Backend *dir = backend_dir_new(dirroot, &derr);
    if (!dir) { fprintf(stderr, "backend_dir_new failed: %d\n", derr); return 1; }
    vfs_mount(vd, "/", dir);

    section("1b. create N small files (dir backend vs. what it wraps)");
    bench_create_dirbackend(vd);
    section("2b. read N small files (dir backend)");
    bench_read_dirbackend(vd);
    section("3b. stat N files (dir backend)");
    bench_stat_dirbackend(vd);
    section("4b. readdir (dir backend)");
    bench_readdir_dirbackend(vd);

    section("5. unlink N files");
    bench_unlink_mem(v);
    bench_unlink_dirbackend(vd);
    bench_unlink_rawfs(rawroot);

    section("6. mkdir/rmdir N directories");
    bench_mkdir_mem(v);
    bench_mkdir_dirbackend(vd);
    bench_mkdir_rawfs(rawroot);

    section("7. large sequential write/read");
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N_LARGE_SIZES; i++) bench_large_mem(v, LARGE_SIZES[i]);
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N_LARGE_SIZES; i++) bench_large_rawfs(rawroot, LARGE_SIZES[i], 0);
    for (size_t i = 0; i < N_LARGE_SIZES; i++) bench_large_rawfs(rawroot, LARGE_SIZES[i], 1);

    /* ---- pack: build one, then random-access read it ---- */
    section("8. random-access read: mmap'd pack vs. raw fs");
    {
        /* re-populate mem with N_SMALL files, then compact into a pack */
        for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
            char path[64]; fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
            int err = 0;
            VfsFile *f = vfs_open(v, path, VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT, &err);
            vfs_write(f, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
            vfs_close(f);
        }
        Backend *ovmem = backend_mem_new();
        int oerr = 0;
        Vfs *vc = vfs_new();
        Backend *ov = backend_overlay_new(pack_path, ovmem, &oerr);
        vfs_mount(vc, "/", ov);
        for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
            char path[64]; fmt_name(path, sizeof(path), "/f", i);
            int err = 0;
            VfsFile *f = vfs_open(vc, path, VFS_O_WRONLY | VFS_O_CREAT, &err);
            vfs_write(f, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
            vfs_close(f);
        }
        double t0 = now_sec();
        vfs_sync(vc, "/");
        double compact_dt = now_sec() - t0;
        record("compact N entries to pack", "pack", compact_dt, N_SMALL, (double)N_SMALL * SMALL_SIZE);
        vfs_unmount(vc, "/");
        backend_free(ov);
        backend_free(ovmem);
        vfs_free(vc);

        /* same N files as plain files on the raw fs, for the random-read comparison */
        for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) {
            char name[64], path[256];
            fmt_name(name, sizeof(name), "/f", i);
            snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "%s%s", rawroot, name);
            int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_TRUNC, 0644);
            write(fd, g_payload, SMALL_SIZE);
            close(fd);
        }

        int *order = malloc(sizeof(int) * N_SMALL);
        srand(12345);
        for (int i = 0; i < N_SMALL; i++) order[i] = i;
        for (int i = N_SMALL - 1; i > 0; i--) { int j = rand() % (i + 1); int t = order[i]; order[i] = order[j]; order[j] = t; }

        Vfs *vp = vfs_new();
        int perr = 0;
        Backend *ro = backend_pack_new(pack_path, &perr);
        vfs_mount(vp, "/", ro);
        bench_pack_random(pack_path, order, vp);
        bench_rawfs_random(rawroot, order);
        vfs_unmount(vp, "/");
        backend_free(ro);
        vfs_free(vp);
        free(order);
    }

    section("9. concurrency (create+read+unlink)");
    bench_concurrency(v, rawroot);

    vfs_unmount(v, "/");
    backend_free(mem);
    vfs_free(v);
    vfs_unmount(vd, "/");
    backend_free(dir);
    vfs_free(vd);

    /* cleanup */
    char cmd[1200];
    snprintf(cmd, sizeof(cmd), "rm -rf '%s' '%s' '%s' '%s.jnl' '%s.tmp'", rawroot, dirroot, pack_path, pack_path, pack_path);
    if (system(cmd) != 0) { /* best-effort cleanup; nothing to do if it fails */ }

    printf("\n=== summary (%d measurements) ===\n", g_row_count);
    printf("  %-28s %-10s %11s  %16s  %12s\n", "category", "backend", "seconds", "throughput", "MB/s");
    for (int i = 0; i < g_row_count; i++) {
        Row *r = &g_rows[i];
        printf("  %-28s %-10s %10.4fs  %14.0f ops/s", r->category, r->backend, r->seconds, r->ops_per_sec);
        if (r->mb_per_sec > 0) printf("  %10.1f MB/s", r->mb_per_sec); else printf("%15s", "");
        printf("\n");
    }
    return 0;
}